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Unit -1
INTRODUCTION TO MORAL
PHILOSOPHY
UNIT STRUCTURE
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definitions of Philosophy
1.2.1. Definition of Philosophy
1.2.2. Branches of Philosophy
1.3 Ethics –Definition and Nature
1.3.1 Definition of Ethics
1.3.2 Natur e of Ethics
1.4 Areas of Ethics
1.5 Ethical Relativism
1.5.1 Types of Ethical Relativism
1.5.2 Relation of Ethical Relativism toNormative Ethics
1.5.3 What Motivates Relativism?
1.5.4 Arguments for Relativism
1.5.5 Criticism of Relativism
1.6 Conclusion
1.7 Summary
1.8 Broad Questions
1.0 OBJECTIVES
• To understand the meaning and the subject matter ofphilosophy
• To know the branches of philosophymunotes.in
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• To understand the meaning and the subject matter of moral
philosophy .
• To know the areas of moral phil osophy.
• To understand the theory of moral relativism
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Man is a rational animal. He is curious about various
happenings and events about the world. He wanted to explore
these events and want to know the order in the world. He tries to
seek explanation for the mysteries of the world like the origin of
world, what is the nature of world etc. Man has instinctively intense
desire to reflect upon ultimate truth. The search into the nature of
reality has two aspects –understanding and practicin g.
Philosophy arises from the speculative and critical search of
ultimate reality. It gives rational account of the facts, events in this
world. Philosophy seeks the explanation of the forces operative in
this universe. So theoretically philosophy is a me thodical work of
thought.
The search into the nature of reality has practical aspect.
Human intelligence has practical application. The very existence of
man depends upon his ability to apprehend and to respond the
world around him. Here arises the need of practical utility of his
reasoning. Wisdom, the maturity to judge the external factors
isessential in the maintenance of man’s existence. This gives rise
to Ethics.
Ethics is concerned with the practical problems of man,
initially in the survival and then those in the moral, organized,
harmonious life. Man is a rational animal -the animal that lives on amunotes.in
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higher plane. He apprehends Truth, realizes Good and creates
Beauty. The practical aspect of reason shows the progress in
morality. In the longing for higher levels, man has developed from
instinctive morality to reflective morality. Man was governed by
nature and then by laws. Now he is governed by his own
autonomous moral will. The self-conscious rational being, feels the
urge of the unity of Truth, Be auty and Good. Human being is
preparing himself to realize the Supreme End.
1.2 DEFINITIONS OF PHILOSOPHY: BRANCHES
OFPHILOSOPHY
Philosophy is the methodical work of thoughts. It is an art of
life. It tries to understand the meaning and the value of life .I ti sa n
attempt to understand the ultimate Reality. Philosophy is the study
of the principles which underlie all knowledge. Philosophy tries to
discover ultimate truth. It is an attempt of rational interpretation and
unification of all our experiences. It tries to give a rational picture of
the whole universe. Philosophy is an attempt to understand oneself,
to understand the world around him and to know one’s relation with
others and to the world.
The word `philosophy’ is derived from the Greek word
`philosophia’ which means love of wisdom. Philosophy is love of
knowledge and philosopher is a person who seeks knowledge.
Philosopher is an impartial spectator of the eternal universe. Initially
philosophy was the intellectual movement. It was simply the sea rch
of knowledge without any specialization.
In India, Philosophy is called ‘Darshan’ which means ‘Vision’
and also the means or instruments of Vision. Indian philosophy
arises out of the urge for the direct realization of ultimate Reality.munotes.in
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We find the seeds of Indian philosophy in the Upanishads, the
sacred books of Hindus.
Philosophy arises out of curiosity and wonder. Man is a
rational animal. He has the capacity of reasoning. The natural
phenomena such as the sun, moon, raining, thunder, were mirac les
for a primitive man. Man tried to understand these miracles by his
rational thinking. Gradually speculation took the place of wonder.
So called miracles were explained by one or more basic
principles. Philosophy then became speculative and intellectua l
inquiry. Its object of inquiry shifted from material objects to the
principles beyond these objects. Philosophy tried to satisfy the
mystical side of human nature too.
1.2.1. Definition of Philosophy
It is very difficult to give precise definition of ph ilosophy. Let
us try to know some of the definitions: -
1. Philosophy is the study of Reality underlying phenomenal
world.
Philosophy is the study of ultimate Reality. We know this
world with the help of our sense organs. We also know that many a
times o ur sense organs cannot provide the correct information.
Philosophy aims at understanding the fundamental nature of
reality behind our experiences. It inquires in the nature of such
concepts as Matter, Self, God, Space, Time which are not known
directly. Philosophy tries to know the essence of the worldly
objects. All worldly objects seem to be appearances. They are
glimpses of the reality. Philosophy seeks the transcendental,
Absolute reality behind these worldly objects. As the light changes
the color of the objects too changes. The question arises ‘What ismunotes.in
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the true color of the objects?’ There must be something which
exists, irrespective of all these variations. Philosophy aims at
knowing the Reality which is expressed through different
experiences.
2. Philosophy is a synoptic view.
Philosophy is the study of ultimate Reality. It is the most
generalized knowledge. Different sciences deal with a specific
portion of the universe. For example, Astronomy studies heavenly
bodies, physics, and chemistry give k nowledge about the
compositions of material objects. Psychology deals with human and
animal behavior. Philosophy gives a general description of the
whole universe. So it inquires into the nature of material objects
(matter) as well as mental processes (min d). It studies the nature of
matter, the self, the world, God, Space, Time, their interrelations,
their meaning and purposes.
Will Durant defines philosophy as the study of experience
as a whole or a portion of experience in relation to the whole.
Philos ophy aims at systematization of different elements of this
universe. It sketches the rational picture of the universe.
3.Philosophy is an unusually persistent attempt to think
consistently This definition is given by Plato. Philosophy is
speculative. It does not assume anything. It questions all our
experiences. Philosophy is an endless intellectual enquiry in the
search of truth. If we go on asking the questions logically, we can
arrive at the clear rational concept of the universe. Philosophy is
the cri tical examination of our beliefs. This process eliminates many
wrong vague, prejudiced notions. It also gives rise to many
questions such as ‘what is knowledge ?’.munotes.in
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4. Philosophy harmonizes the conclusions of different
sciences.
Herbert Spencer believed that philosophy is completely
unified knowledge. Philosophy is an organic system. The principles
of different sciences can be deduced from this organic, unified
system. All the principles of different sciences must be harmonious
with one another.
Herber t Spencer’s philosophy is called as synthetic
philosophy. Philosophy is the universal science which combines the
general truths obtained in the special sciences into a self -consistent
system.
5. Philosophy is the mother of all sciences.
The search of kno wledge resulted in specialization of
knowledge. As knowledge of particular field became possible, it
developed into a different science. Once, physics (natural
philosophy), zoology, astronomy, psychology, all special sciences
were included in philosophy. A ll modern sciences arose out of
philosophy. So philosophy is called as the mother of all sciences.
Philosophy is also called as the science of sciences. Philosophy is
the Queen of Sciences. The whole world is her subject matter.
6. Philosophy is Conceptua lA n a l y s i s .
The thinkers of Analytical school of philosophy like A.J. Ayer
believe that philosophy has nothing to do with transcendental ideas.
It should concentrate on empirical experiences. All philosophical
questions are the questions about language. Th ey arise due to
ambiguity and vagueness of concepts like Mind, Matter, Truth,
Good, Beauty, Nationality, Religion, Friendship, Love etc. However,
we do not know the precise meaning of these of words. We fail to
express these concepts in proper language. Wh en these concepts
are interpreted in different ways, even the contrary theories maymunotes.in
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arise. Aristotle strongly holds the principle of causation whereas
Hume completely denies the casual relation. Even today the
concepts of friendship and love are misinterp reted in the society.
That is why we read the news of offences against women. Socrates
believed that a philosopher should help to reveal the clear, precise
and accurate meaning of the concepts. Socrates also believed that
all of us are rational beings.
Aphilosopher has to simply uncover the correct knowledge
which is already present in our mind. A philosopher does not create
anything of his own. It is like a job of midwife who does not create a
child but helps the child to enter this world.
1.2.2. Branc hes of Philosophy
Literally speaking philosophy is love of wisdom. It includes
search of knowledge without any limitation. The vast subject matter
of philosophy can be subdivided as follows: -
1. Metaphysics: -It studies the problems regarding reality I ti s
divided into Ontology i.e. study of Being and Cosmology i.e. the
study of physical universe. In metaphysics philosophers attempts to
answer the questions like is there a god? What is the ultimate
reality? What is the origin of this world? Is there lif ea f t e rd e a t h ?
etc.
2. Epistemology: -It studies the basis, the nature and the scope of
human knowledge. It attempts to find out what are the sources of
knowledge? How we can know the world? What are valid sources
of knowledge?
3. Logic: -It studies th e principles and methods of reasoning. It
helps to distinguish between good reasoning and bad reasoning.munotes.in
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4. Ethics: -It is related with human conduct, character and values.
Ethics also explores into the problem of practical life i.e. morality. It
deals wi th the questions of what is right and wrong or good and
bad.
5. Aesthetics: -It is concerned with the problems of Beauty. Our
feelings, creation of art and principles of art, literature fall within the
scope of Aesthetics.
6. Analytical Philosophy: -Itstudies the linguistic problems which
give rise to philosophical problems.
7. Social Philosophy: -It studies the interrelation of social
organizations and the relation of individual to these organizations.
8. Political Philosophy: -It seeks insight in to the ideals of State,
the functions of the State etc.
9. Philosophy of Religion: -It studies the central notions in
religion and tries to seek rational explanation of and justification for
concepts like God, evil etc.
As every branch of knowledge ar ises from philosophy, there
can be philosophy of education, philosophy of management,
philosophy of history etc.
Check Your Progress
1. What is the literal meaning of philosophy?
2. Why is philosophy a synoptic view?
3. Why is philosophy a conceptual ana lysis?
4. What are the branches of philosophy?munotes.in
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1.3 ETHICS -DEFINITION AND NATURE
Plato said that philosophy begins in wonder. Ethics as
branch of philosophy arises from the curiosity about the values
involved in the human behavior. Human conduct is a chain of
voluntary actions. It implies the inherent and intense desire for
higher ideals. All activities, determined by ends, are related with
Ethics. Ethics investigates into the nature of human conduct
accordingly.
The ultimate goal of the quest of hum an life is usually
mentioned by the words like, The Good, the Highest Good, the
Supreme Good or End, Summum Bonum etc.
1.3.1 Definition of Ethics
The word `Ethics’ is derived from the Greek word `ethos’
which means customs, usages or habits. Ethics is als oc a l l e da s
Moral Philosophy. The word `moral’ is derived from the Latin word
mores ’ which also means customs, usages or habits. Thus literally,
Ethics is the science of customs or collective habits of men. Any
custom has a reference to the community. Cust oms are the ways of
acting, approved by the group.
The root word ‘ETHOS’ indicates that this branch of
philosophy was originated in Greece and the credit goes to
Aristotle. Various definitions are given to explain the subject matter
and scope of moral ph ilosophy. Let us have a look at these
definitions -
Paulsen defines Ethics as a science of customs or morals.
According to Mackenzie, Ethics is the study of what is
goodor right in conduct.munotes.in
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For Seth, as the science of the Good, Ethics is the
sciencepar exce llence of the ideal and the ‘ought’.
For Jadunath Sinha, Ethics is the science of the Highest
Good.
Lillie’s definition is a comprehensive definition.
According to William Lillie, “Ethics is a normative science of
the conduct of
human beings living in soc ieties –science which judges
thisconduct to be right or wrong, good and bad.”
1.3.2 Nature of Ethics
The definitions of Ethics mentioned above have some
common features. The nature of Ethics can be stated as follows: -
Ethics is a science:
Science is a systematic and more or less complete body of
knowledge about a particular set of related events or objects. A
scientific method has the steps of accurate observations,
classification and explanation. Ethics aims at systematic
explanation of its subject mat ter. It systematically aims at
explanation of rightness and wrongness in human conduct with
reference to ideals. It systematically classifies our actions into
voluntary, involuntary, moral, non -moral and evaluates them.
Ethics is a normative science
Every individual has three faculties viz. Cognitive, Affective
and Conative (knowing, feeling and willing or acting). Human
beings seek knowledge and they try to apprehend Truth. They have
emotions and they try to create Beauty or harmony. Human beings
have w ill to transcend facts and they try to realize Good. Thus,
there are 3 ideals in human life corresponding to the three aspects
of human nature. Truth, Beauty, and Good are the Supreme Ideals.
Logic, Aesthetics and Ethics study the ideals of Truth, Beauty a ndmunotes.in
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Good respectively. Logic, Aesthetics and Ethics study the ideals of
human life. Hence they are called as normative sciences. A
normative science is different from positive science. Physics,
chemistry, botany, zoology etc. are positive or naturalistic or
descriptive sciences.
A positive science is concerned with facts. It systematically
describes the facts, objects or events as they are found to exist. A
normative science is concerned with ideals, the values of the facts.
A positive science tells us how a particular object `is’. A normative
science pronounces how something “ought to be”.
A positive science provides explanation of fact by
discovering the causes and the stages of development. A
normative science does not provide any explanation of ideal s. A
natural science gives descriptive judgments while a normative
science gives appreciative judgments. The function of a descriptive
science is that of measurement while the function of a normative
science is that of evaluation.
The conclusions in pos itive sciences can be established by
their relation to facts. The ideals in normative science cannot be
proved. In the other words “values” cannot be proved; they are to
be approved. Human “Reason” plays the dominant role in positive
sciences. Human intel lect observes, describes and classifies facts.
It is our reason that discovers the uniformities among facts and
propounds the laws. In normative sciences human `Will’ plays the
dominant role. We can never explain or prove how’ the symphony
of Beethoven is divine.
Ethics is the science of ideals involved in human conduct
Ethics is literally speaking, the science of customs or habits.Habitsmunotes.in
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are the settled dispositions of character. Character is inner bent of
mind while conduct is the outer expression.
According to Spencer, conduct is the adjustment of acts to
ends. It is the purposive activity. Conduct is the assimilation of
choice of Ends and choice of means with some purpose. Thus
Ethics is the science of ideals (Ends) involved in human conduct.
Ethics evaluates human action. Ethics is a discipline which
considers human actions from the viewpoint of ethical norm or
standard. It studies what is good orright in human conduct. Ethics
evaluates conduct with reference to the Summum Bonum of human
being. Two words `Right’ and `Good’ are used for the evaluation of
human action. The word `Right’ is derived from the Latin word
`rectus’ which means straight or according to rule. So Ethics is
concerned with these principles or rules which make human
conduct right o r straight. In other words, the human action is said to
be right, when it is in accordance with the rule e. g the rules of
traffic. The rules are made for some purpose for the rules are
notend in themselves. They are means for seeking higher goals.
The w ord ‘Good’ is derived from the Germen word ‘Gut’
which means serviceable or valuable for some end. So Ethics is
concerned with goals or ideals, which make human conduct good.
There are various ideals and values and human being is expected
them to follow. T hehuman actions are said to be good if they are in
accordance with values. For example, speaking truth. In this way,
by the goals and by the means to goals, Ethics evaluates human
conduct.munotes.in
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Check your progress
1) How can Ethics be defined?
2) What is the subject matter of Ethics?
3) What are faculties of human mind?
4) Why is Ethics a normative science?
Ethics: A Theoretical science or a Practical science?
Many Western thinkers believe that Ethics is not a practical
science. A practical science t eaches us to know how to do. It is
concerned with means for the realization of a definite end. In this
sense, medical science is a practical science as it points out the
means by which the ideal of good health can be achieved. Ethics is
not a practical sci ence as it gives us knowledge of guiding
principles but does not tell us how to apply them. However, in
Indian context, Ethics is a practical science. Different schools of
Indian Philosophy prescribe the supreme end of life (mostly
liberation) and prescrib e the path to attain it. The ethics of
Bhagawad Gita prescribes the duties of individual.
Ethics is not an Art .Ethics is concerned with conduct or
behaviour i.e.with the practical life of an individual. The question
arises; can there be a skill, better skill, in being moral? Is Ethics an
art? Human conduct and art, both are related with activities. Both
are evaluated and declared as good or bad. Mackenzie compared
Ethics with art and declared that ethics is different from art.
According to Mackenzie, the difference between ethics and art is as
follows: -
Art is connected to a particular field of skill such as painting,
dancing , etc. Ethics is connected with the whole life of an individual.
A good painter is one who can paint beautifully. Even if he is n ot
painting yet he is called as a painter. An art is a capacity or
potentiality of a specific skill. A good man is one who does actmunotes.in
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rightly. A moral person is one who actually practices it. Thus in
moral sense goodness is related with an activity.
While evaluating a piece of art, the skill is evaluated. The
intention of artist is not at all considered. While evaluating human
conduct, the intention and the volition of the individual also taken
into consideration.
An artist can give up his art after some time. A retired singer
is always a singer. However a good man cannot give up virtues.
There is no holiday from moral virtues. We must always keep in
mind Mackenzie’s views about an art and ethics. Today many
courses are conducted for personality developme nt. Whatever
training is given in these courses is the presentation of oneself. Can
we say that the training shapes the inner bent or the character of
the individual? Is it an artificial make over or true development of
values from within?
Ethics is relat ed with Values
Ethics is the study of what is good or right in human conduct.
Ethical questions are value -oriented questions. Value judgments
are complex products of intuition, sense experience and reason.
From the moral point of view, values are the bel iefs about what is
right, good, desirable and important in human life. Values are
necessarily associated with choice of activities. We have to select
the action that is consistent with promotion of life, live organized
rational life. Values emerge through the interaction between nature
and spirit, reality and mind. There is a process of growth into
increasing complexity, into higher and higher levels of existence.
Values are new characters of reality arising from the interaction of
human mind with its objec t. According to Hoffding and Kemp Smith,
Kant taught us to distinguish between the problems of Existence
and the problems of Value.munotes.in
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Facts and Values:
Positive sciences are related with facts. Fact is related with
‘what is’. Fact stands for things or events as they exist in a
particular space and time. Facts and phenomena have no
concealed significance beyond what they present to us in external
experience. They are descriptive in nature. Fact is something
known to be true. It is a piece of information or reality. Facts satisfy
our intellect.
Normative science deals with values. It is concerned with
‘what ought to be’. Values are something to be pursued in life.
Values belong to the background of facts and they are recognized
by consciousness. Values are pres criptive in nature. They are
evaluative. Values are over and above the framework of facts that
is constituted by matter, space, time and causality. Values are
neither true nor false. Values satisfy our desires & aspirations. We
become aware of the world of nature by sense and reason. Values
do not exist in space and time like the objects of nature do. Values
subsist in themselves above space and time.
Values are not existents, they are subsistent. Consciousness
of values is immediate and intuitive. Values transcend the
spatiotemporal world.
The awareness about values is inevitable development of
the estimation of things and events. Facts and values are closely
connected. So long as the fact is there; there is value by
implication. Facts and values are inse parable from one another.
There can be no existence without values and no value without
existence.munotes.in
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Intrinsic Values and Extrinsic Values:
Values can be viewed from the standpoint of their
importance. All values are experiences of different degrees of
importance in the development of individuality. So we classify
values on the basis of importance these values have.
An intrinsic value is one which has worth in its own right. It is
an End -in-itself. Truth, Beauty, Goodness, Temperance, Courage
etc. are considered as intrinsic values. They are good not because
of their consequences but because they are good in themselves.
These values retain even if they were to exist completely alone.
Intrinsic values are said to be Absolute values.
An Extrinsic value i s one which is a means to some other
value. It is of instrumental worth only. A pair of spectacles is good
only if there are eyes behind spectacles to see through them. The
spectacles have instrumental value. Extrinsic or Instrumental
values are the part o fl a r g e rw h o l e .T h e ya r em e a n st oa nE n d .
Wealth, fame , physical fitness, etc. borrow their worth from
something extraneous to them.
The terms Extrinsic and Intrinsic are used relatively. They
are not always mutually exclusive or fixed. What is valued by one
person for its own sake may be valued by another person as a
means to an End. e.g., a design of washing machine.
Values can be graded as Positive Values and Negative
Values, Productive Values and Unproductive values; Permanent
values and Transient val ues.
In general, Intrinsic values are rated higher than Extrinsic
values. Positive values are preferred to Negative values. The locus
of values is human mind. It is a special sort of reaction to themunotes.in
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environment. Human mind has three psychical functions
(aspects) —thinking, feeling and willing. The values corresponding
to these functions are Intellectual values (Truth),Aesthetic values
(Beauty) and Moral values (Goodness). Truth,Beauty and Good are
Universal values.
Check your progress
1) Is Ethics a practi cal science?
2) How is Ethics different from Art?
3) What is a value?
4) What is the difference between a fact and a value?
5) What is meant by Intrinsic value and Extrinsic value?
1.4 THE AREA OF ETHICS
There are four branches of Ethics namely Des criptive Ethics,
Normative Ethics, Meta -Ethics and Applied Ethics.
Descriptive Ethics
Descriptive Ethics is the study of people’s beliefs about
morality. It involves empirical investigation. It gives us a general
pattern or a way of life of people in di fferent types of communities.
Descriptive Ethics studies the history and evolution of Ethics.It
gives a record of certain taboos, customs or conventions. For
example, it states the history of various institutions like family or
marriage. Lawrence Kohlberg’ s theory of moral consciousness is
an example of Descriptive Ethics. Descriptive Ethics investigates
people’s ethical ideals or what actions are condemned in a society.
It aims to find out people’s beliefs about values, which actions are
right and wrong an d which characteristics of a moral agent are
virtuous. Descriptive Ethics seeks the explanation of actual choices
made by moral agents in practice. It tries to examine the ethicalmunotes.in
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codes applied by various groups. Descriptive Ethics is a value -free
approach to ethics. It is empirical investigation of people’s moral
beliefs.
Normative Ethics
Normative Ethics is also called as prescriptive ethics. It is the
study of ethical theories that prescribe how people ought to act. It
examines standards for the rightne ss and wrongness of actions.
Normative Ethics suggests punishment when a person deviates
from the path of ideals. It provides justification for punishing a
person who disturbs social and moral order. It tries to establish
certain theories on the guidelines of some norms. Normative Ethics
offer the moral principles to use to resolve difficult moral decisions.
Aristotle’s virtue ethics, Kant’s deontological ethics, Mill’s
Consequentialism (Utilitarianism) and the Bhagwad Gita’s Nishkam
Karmayoga are the theor ies in Normative Ethics.
Meta -Ethics
Meta Ethics is the study of what ethical terms and theories actually
refer to. It determines the validity of theories advanced in Normative
Ethics. We use certain moral concepts such as right, wrong ,g o o d
or bad to ev aluate human actions. These moral concepts are used
as tools in passing moral judgments. Meta -Ethics analyses ethical
concepts. It studies the meaning of moral language and the
metaphysics of moral facts. Meta -Ethics seeks to understand the
nature of ethi cal properties and evaluations.
Meta Ethics deals with the questions such as ‘What is the
meaning of moral terms or judgments?’, ‘What is the nature of
moral judgments?’, ‘How may moral judgments be supported or
defended?’munotes.in
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Applied Ethics
In recent yea rs the branch of Applied Ethics is developed. It
deals with the problems confronted in our life. It attempts to apply
ethical theory to real life situations. It helps to use knowledge of
moral principles to present dilemmas. There are certain issues
which arise due to newly adopted life style. Applied Ethics deals
with the questions such as, “Is getting an abortion immoral?" " Is
euthanasia immoral?" "Is affirmative action right or wrong?" "What
are human rights, and how do we determine them?" "Do animals
have rights as well?"
Applied Ethics guides the individuals facing conflicting
situation. Some critical moral issues arise due to the insensible and
irresponsible attitude of human beings without any concern to other
children of Mother Nature. Applied Ethi cs provides guidance in
determining public policy and laws. Applied Ethics develops into
Environmental Ethics, Media Ethics, Business Ethics, Ethics of
Legal Profession and Ethics of Care. The ethical questions never
have answer in ‘yes’/ ‘no’ or ‘right’/’ wrong’ format. Ethical issues are
multifaceted. Their satisfactory solutions are possible through
consideration of different areas of life.
1.5 ETHICAL RELATIVISM
Let us first understand what relativism is? Relativism is the
belief that all knowledge is subjective, including moral knowledge.
Once we understand what it signifies, we will try to understand what
ethical relativism is.
What is Ethical Relativism?
Ethical relativism is the moral theory that holds that morality
is relative to the norms of one' s culture. That is, whether an actionmunotes.in
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is right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the society in
which it is practiced. The same action may be morally right in one
society but be morally wrong in another.
For the ethical relativist, there are no unive rsal moral
principles --principles that can be universally applied to all peoples
at all times.
1.5.1 TYPES OF ETHICAL RELATIVISM
Ethical relativism appeals to many people. But as we shall
see, it leads to a number of inconsistent and unsatisfactory
conc lusions. First, let us make an important distinction, for there are
two main types of ethical relativism:
A. Descriptive Relativism
The descriptive theories are the ones that we read about in
anthropology textbooks. These sorts of studies are nothing new, but
have been going on since ancient times. E .g. Xenophon, in ancient
Greece, noted how Darius, king of Persia, took delight in watching
naive peoples undergo culture shock, Herodotus’ story about the
Greeks and Callatians. On the contemporary scene,
anthr opologists have gone out to remote regions and come home
with bizarre stories. E .g., the Eskimos and polygamy, infanticide,
and genocide. Even as our people visit other parts of the world,
they are often stunned by the different practices. e.g., female
soldiers in Saudi Arabia, bribery practices in Japan and elsewhere
or within our country, child marriage.
Descriptive relativism notes that there are differences among
cultures’ ethical practices and standards without saying anything
about their justificatio n.munotes.in
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B. Prescriptive or Normative relativism
Normative relativism goes further and claims that people
ought not to apply the standards of one culture to evaluate the
behaviour of the people of another culture. This is usually called
“cultural relativism” a nd so we will focus on the latter, that is,
prescriptive relativism.
1.5.2 RELATION OF ETHICAL RELATIVISM TO NORMATIVE
ETHICS
Ethical Relativism goes one step further and makes a
judgment that says the morals of the culture are right for that
culture. Thi s latter approach is a normative ethic. To further explain,
given such variety in practices around the world, one is inclined to
wonder who's got the right set of rules. The relativist answer is: no
one does --right and wrong are relative. A normative ethi ci so n e
that asks, "What should or should not be done?"
The original advocate for this approach is Ruth Benedict,
cultural anthropologist who started out trying to describe normal
cultural behaviours. Her work boils down to the notion that "what is
norma li smoral.” Ethical relativism is a moral theory that promotes
tolerance as its value.
1.5.3 WHAT MOTIVATES RELATIVISM?
Ethical relativism is the position that there are no objective or
universally valid moral principles, for all moral judgments are simp ly
am a t t e ro fh u m a no p i n i o n .
Here are several well -intentioned reasons why relativists
think people from one culture ought to refrain from judging the
ethical practices and standards of another culture:munotes.in
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Descriptive relativism seems right because globali zation has
increased awareness of the diversity of cultures with
different moral practices and standards;
There is the perception that moral disagreements are
irresolvable because there appears to be no intercultural
standards of evaluation;
There is a des ire to “live and let live”;
There is a fear of absolutism (“our way is the right way”);
There is widespread belief that people should respect, or at
least tolerate, other people’s cultural values and practices;
There is scepticism or uncertainty about the justification of
one’s own moral values;
There is deep unease about imperialism towards other
cultures; this is one of the legacies of colonialism.
We don’t think these factors justify or require us to adopt
relativism. On the other hand, they are underst andable reasons for
being tempted by relativism. But what are the arguments offered in
support of this view?
1. Who is the advocate of ethical relativism?
2. What is Ruth Benedict’s observation about cultures?
3. Define Relativism.
4. What is Ethical Rela tivism?
5. Which value does Ethical Relativism promote?
6. Give any two reasons why relativists think that one should refrain
from judging other cultures.
1.5.4 ARGUMENTS FOR RELATIVISM
The actual diversity of moral practices and standards”
Ethical relativism” is the view that what is right and wrong can only
be determined or justified relative to the standards of the individual,munotes.in
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group or culture in question. More specifically, “cultural ethical
relativism” can be stated as follows:
Ethical standards va ry from culture to culture; therefore,
there are no universal moral standards which apply across cultures.
There is no denying that human behaviour and ideas of right
and wrong vary from culture to culture and across historical
periods. On this view, fe male genital mutilation (FGM) is not wrong
in Somalia because the practice accords with local tradition, but it is
deeply wrong in another country because it may be contrary to that
country’s gender equality (amongst other reasons).
The view that moral st andards differ from culture to culture
can be called the “diversity thesis.” But right away we should notice
that just because there happens to be such diversity of moral
standards, it doesn’t follow that each set of standards is equally
right or justified . The diversity thesis is a claim about what is the
case in the world, not about whether one set of standards is better
than another. The dependency of those practices and standards on
the specific culture .
The relativist takes the diversity thesis furt her, though, by
combining it with what can be called the “dependency thesis.” This
is the idea that the wrongness or rightness of actions depends on
or is relative to the culture from which they emanate. The diversity
thesis points out that Somalians and C anadians, for example, have
different standards. Then the dependency thesis says that only the
standards of Somalians should be used to judge the actions of a
Somalian. If this is true then it is also true that the standards of
Somalians should not be used to judge the actions of Canadians.
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1. Tolerance as a value
The ethical relativists are strong in their advocacy for
tolerance and appreciation of other cultures, but contain a
philosophical and rational contradiction --what if the culture in
question is not a tolerant culture but insists on imposing its values
on others? It does not answer the question of whether and when to
interfere with other cultures.
1.5.5 CRITICISM OF RELATIVISM
1. Most ethicists reject the theory of ethical relativism. Some claim
that while the moral practices of societies may differ, the
fundamental moral principles underlying these practices do not.For
example, in some societies, killing one's parents after they reached
a certai n age was common practice, stemming from thebelief that
people were better off in the afterlife if they entered it while still
physically active and vigorous. While such a practice would be
condemned in our society, we would agree with these societies on
the underlying moral principle --the duty to care for parents.
Societies, then, may differ in their application of fundamental moral
principles but agree on the principles.
2. Also, it is argued, it may be the case that some moral beliefs are
culturally r elative whereas others are not. Certain practices, such
as customs regarding dress and decency, may depend on local
custom whereas other practices, such as slavery, torture, or
political repression, may be governed by universal moral standards
and judged w rong despite the many other differences that exist
among cultures. Simply because some practices are relative does
not mean that all practices are relative.
3. Other philosophers criticize ethical relativism because of its
implications for individual mora l beliefs. These philosophers assert
that if the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on amunotes.in
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society's norms, then it follows that one must obey the norms of
one's society and to diverge from those norms is to act immorally.
This means that if I am a member of a society that believes that
racial or sexist practices are morally permissible, then I must accept
those practices as morally right. But such a view promotes social
conformity and leaves no room for moral reform or improvement in
a society. Furt hermore, members of the same society may hold
different views on practices. In the United States, for example, a
variety of moral opinions exists on matters ranging from animal
experimentation to abortion. What constitutes right action when
social consensu s is lacking?
4. Perhaps the strongest argument against ethical relativism comes
from those who assert that universal moral standards can exist
even if some moral practices and beliefs vary among cultures. In
other words, we can acknowledge cultural diffe rences in moral
practices and beliefs and still hold that some of these practices and
beliefs are morally wrong. The practice of slavery in pre -Civil war
U.S. society or the practice of apartheid in South Africa is wrong
despite the beliefs of those societ ies. The treatment of the Jews in
Nazi society is morally reprehensible regardless of the moral beliefs
of Nazi society. For these philosophers, ethics is an inquiry into
right and wrong through a critical examination of the reasons
underlying practices an d beliefs. As a theory for justifying moral
practices and beliefs , ethical relativism fails to recognize that some
societies have better reasons for holding their views than others.
1.6 CONCLUSION
Moral relativism is the strong claim that all morals are
relative to the believer; and if this claim were true, then we would
inevitably need to accept that genital mutilation, sex selectionmunotes.in
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abortions, murder, abuse, mercy killing, rape, and even genocide
are, well, morally acceptable since we lack a ground to c ondemn
such actions. If a culture or person practices an act that we believe
is inhumane, then we need a basis to ground our moral criticism
and judgment upon. Lacking that ground —or objective notion of
moral right or wrong —pushes us into the corner of sil ence or
apathy. Most philosophers argue that moral universalism —an
objective moral good —is the preferred position. On the contrary,
and strictly speaking , if relativism is true and all morals are up to
the culture or individual ,t h e nl i t e r a l l ya l lt h i n g sa re morally
permissible. Clearly this is an untenable position, but why?
But even if the theory of ethical relativism is rejected, it must
be acknowledged that the concept raises important issues. Ethical
relativism reminds us that different societies have different moral
beliefs and that our beliefs are deeply influenced by culture. It also
encourages us to explore the reasons underlying beliefs that differ
from our own, while challenging us to examine our reasons for the
beliefs and values we hold.
Check your Progress
7. What is understood by diversity thesis?
8. What is meant by dependency thesis?
1.7 SUMMARY
Philosophy arises from the individual wonder about this
universe . Philosophy is the speculation about the empirical as well
astranscendental world. Ethics is practical application of human
reasoning. It is related with the existence of the individual in this
world and his quest of supreme ideals. Ethics as a normative
science evaluates human conduct with Summum Bonum of life andmunotes.in
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declares the acti ons as good or bad, as right or wrong. The
question arises whether Ethics is a theoretical science or a practical
science?
Ethics is not an Art. Ethics is related with Values. Values are
different from facts. Values are graded as per their importance in
one’s life. Values are graded as Intrinsic values –Extrinsic
(Instrumental) values, Positive values –Negative values,
Productive values –Unproductive values, Permanent values -
Transient values. Today the scope of Ethics is extended to
Descriptive Ethics, Normative Ethics, Meta Ethics and Applied
Ethics. Descriptive Ethics studies the history and evolution of
Ethics. Normative Ethics tries to establish certain theories on the
guidelines of some norms.
Meta Ethics analyses ethical concepts. Applied Ethics deals
with the problems confronted in our newly adopted life style.
1.8 BROAD QUESTIONS
1. Discuss various definitions of philosophy orState the natureof
philosophy.
2. Explain fully the nature of Ethics .
3. State the ethical relativism. Explain the arg uments put forward to
support this theory.
4. Write notes on: -
a. Branches of philosophy
b. The areas of Ethics
c. Difference between Ethics and Art.
d. Ethics as a normative science
f. Relation between facts and values
g. Intrinsic Values and Extrinsic Va lues
h.Types of ethical relativism
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Unit -2
MORALITY IN THE INDIAN
PHILOSOPHICAL CONTEXT –I
UNIT STRUCTURE
2.0 Objective
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Features of Indian Ethics
2.3 The idea of Nishkama Karma in Bhagavad Gita
2.3.1 The Path of Knowledge
2.3.2 The Path of Devotion
2.3.3.1 Prescribed Duties
2.3.3.2 Disinterested performance of duties
2.4Sthitaprajna -The Moral Ideal
2.5 Concept of Dharma with reference to Rta, Rna & Purusharth a
2.5.1 The Concept of RTA
2.5.2 Concept of RNA
2.5.3 Purus hartha
2.6 Summary
2.7 Broad Question
2.0 OBJECTIVES
•philosophy was a general term denoting a concern for wisdom.
•Yet,the idea of discipline (yoga )as the foundation of higher
learning and knowledge (jñana) is basic to the Indian
philosophical tradition. While it is true that not every Indian
philosophical theory embraces the importance of discipline formunotes.in
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knowledge, the idea of the distinction between ordinary ,social
knowledge (gained by socialisation ),and higher learning and
knowledge (facilitated by a disciplined approach to knowing )
shows up in the earliest of Indian philosophical sources (such as
in the Upaniṣhad, and in the early Jain and Buddhist texts).
•As philosophy involves the twin criteria of the universalised
generality (philosophical claims) and the generalised universal
(philosophical concepts), with the two making a case for each
other, writing in phi losophy involves analysis and argument.
•The Gita and the Maha bha rata are hence a dialectical
experimentation in moral philosophy, where the characters not
only assume the role of prominent ethical theories but must also
work through the ethical challenge as a matter of practice.
•ch. 3 -138 an d 150 pg S Radhakrishna.
•To know the features of Orthodox and Heterodox systems of
Indian Moral Philosophy.
•To understand the concept of ‘DHARMA’ as the supreme
principle of morality.
•To understand the need to make moral decisions.
•To understand the nee d to have clarity in the special characters
of moral decisions.
•To understand the principles in accordance with which duties can
be performed.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Ethics is a branch of philosophy in western philosophy. In
Indian perspective Ethics is coev al with philosophy. This idea that
ethics is concerned with protection is a unique contribution of Indian
philosophy to ethics. Philosophy is not just an intellectual inquiry
but a way of life. Indian thinkers aim at realisation of the Ultimate
Reality. In dian thinkers take a synthetic view of life. For them theremunotes.in
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are no watertight compartments among the philosophical problems.
The Indians have a strong faith in moral order that prevails in this
universe. Everyone has to contribute to universal moral order.
Every individual has a role to play in this universe. Every role brings
with it specified duties and responsibilities.
In Indian view, the obligation of an individual is not confined
to human society only. It is extended to the whole of sentient
creatio n. Indian philosophy holds, “Love thy neighbor as thyself and
every living being is thy neighbor”. Moral philosophy in India is truly
speaking the art of living a good and disciplined life.
2.2. THE FEATURES OF INDIAN ETHICS
Indian Schools of Philosophy are broadly classified into
Orthodox (Astika) and Heterodox (Nastika). Six chief philosophical
systems viz. Mimansa, Vedanta, Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya and
Vaisheshika are Orthodox schools of Indian Philosophy. These
schools accept the authority of the Vedas. So they are called as
Orthodox or Astika schools. Three Chief Philosophical Systems viz.
The Charvakas, the Bauddha and the Jaina’s are Heterodox
Schools of Indian Philosophy. These schools do not accept the
authority of the Vedas. So,they are called Hete rodox or Nastika
schools.
All Indian systems of thought whether Orthodox or
Heterodox share some common features. The features of Indian
Ethics can be stated as below: -
1.Indian ethics is the oldest moral philosophy in the history of
civilization. It is d ifficult to ascertain the chronology of the
Orthodox and the Heterodox schools (except Lord Buddha
i.e.487 BC) The remoteness of Indian ethics is responsible for
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Every school of Indian Phil osophy confirms the endurance of
ethical ideals which are unshaken even today.
2.Indian thinkers suggest some practical means of attaining a life
of perfection here in this world. The rules of conduct have been
practically followed by the Yoga, the Jain an d the Buddhist
disciples for thousand years. The aim of Indian moral
philosophy is not only to discuss moral ideals but also to follow
the path leading to the moral Ideals.
3.Indian ethics has its strong and deep metaphysical foundation.
Each school of phi losophy points to metaphysical ideals which
are to be actually experienced. There is a synthesis of theory
and practice, of intellectual understanding and direct experience
of ultimate reality (Kaivalya, Nirvana etc.) In Indian Ethics,
intellectualism and moralism are two wings that help the soul in
spiritual flight.
4.Indian ethics is absolutistic and spiritualistic. It aims at
realization of supreme reality by transcending pleasure and
pain; even right and wrong and good and evil. The ideals are
attainabl e by spiritual discipline.
5.Indian Ethics is humanistic. It seeks a balance between an
individual's inner and outer life; individual and social life. Moral
laws or code of conduct is prescribed in such a way that
individual progress and social welfare wil ll e a dt oh a r m o n i o u s
living. The goal of morality is the wellbeing of humanity.
6.Indian ethical thinkers preach non -violence, love, compassion
and good will for all living beings. It is not limited to human
beings. It includes every living being, plants, birds, and animals,
every visible and invisible form of life.munotes.in
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7. Indian thinkers believe in the Law of Karma. Law of Karma
means that all our actions, good or bad, produce their proper
consequences into the life of an individual, who acts with a desire
forfruits thereof. It is the general moral law which governs the life of
all individuals. Law of Karma is the force generated by an action
that has the potency of bearing fruit. It is the law of the conservation
of moral values. Except Charvakas, all Indian schools accept the
Law of Karma.
2.3THE IDEA OF NISHKAMA KARMA IN THE
BHAGAVAD GITA
The Bhagavad Gita is the most popular and the most
influential religious book of the Hindus. It summarizes the important
elements in Hindu philosophy. Great Indian thin kers like
Shankaracharya, Ramanuja, Madhva, Dnyaneshwar,
sarvapalliradhakrishna etc. have written illuminating commentaries
on the Gita. Great national leaders like Lokmanya Tilak and
Mahatma Gandhi have drawn inspiration from the Gita.
The Gita derives its philosophical content chiefly from the
Upnishads. It also synthesizes the philosophical elements from
Sankhya, Yoga etc. schools of philosophy.
On the battlefield of Kurukshetra, Arjun becomes unnerved
when he sees his own relatives in the ranks of t he enemy. He did
not know what to do? Whether to fight and kill them all or to leave
the battlefield? Lord Krishna persuaded Arjuna to perform his duty
i.e. to fight.
Even today, Lord Krishna’s advice is a source of inspiration.
Many times human beings f ace the question “What to do?” Like
Arjuna, we can get inspiration from the Bhagavad Gita.munotes.in
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The Gita holds that liberation is the end of life. Liberation is
the liberation of the soul from the cycle of births and deaths. It is the
merging of the individual soul into the Universal spirit. Realization of
God is possible only through self -realization. The self is revealed
through disinterested performance of duties and selfless service to
mankind.
The Gita prescribes three paths for the liberation. 1. Path o f
Knowledge (Jnyanmarg) 2. Path of Devotion (Bhakti marg) 3. Path
of Action (Karma marg).
2.3.1 The Path of Knowledge
The Gita preaches the path of Knowledge. There is nothing
as pure and purifying as knowledge. Jnyan -yajna is the supreme
sacrifice. In th e fire of self -control, bondage of our actions should
be sacrificed.
Our senses, our mind and our intellect are influenced by
attachment and emotions. Such attachment causes the bondage.
We have to enjoy the consequences of our actions. So there
remains the vicious circle of karmas. A wise man knows to control
the senses to attain liberation. Duties performed without attachment
for the consequences, lead to liberation.
A wise man experiences the unity of the individual soul and
the Universal soul. The G ita preaches that even wise man; the
liberated soul must perform his duties. Common people follow the
wise man. To set an example, the liberated man must continue to
perform the duties. He must render selfless service to mankind.
The Gita holds that the path of Knowledge is very difficult for
common people. Only a few intelligent people can follow the path of
Knowledge. It is very difficult to experience the unity of all individualmunotes.in
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souls. Very few can realize the Universal soul through intellectual
enquir y.
2.3.2 The Path of Devotion
The Gita preaches the path of Devotion too. Through love
and worship of Divine, man can achieve union with the Divine. It is
very difficult for common people to know the abstract eternal
Divine. The worship of God in a concre te form is possible for the
common man.
The Gita declares that “He who worships God, never
perishes”. In the twelfth chapter, the Gita describes the qualities of
a good worshipper. A good devotee is a kind, self -controlled
impartial person. The pleasures or pain does not affect the balance
of his mind. A true devotee does not have ego or any attachment
towards worldly objects.
Devotion must not be blind. A true Bhakti must be
accompanied by Knowledge and selfless action. A true devotee
performs all his duties disinterestedly. Total surrender to God is a
necessary characteristic of the worshipper.
However, the path of Devotion is not very easy. It is very difficult to
surrender oneself to God. It is not easy to give up one's ego and
desires. A true worsh ipper offers the fruits of one’s actions to God.
God is worshipped through social service.
2.3.3 The Path of Action.
The Bhagavad Gita preaches the path of Action for all,
without exception. According to the Gita, action keeps up the cycle
of the universe and it is the duty of every individual to be part of it.
Life itself depends upon action. No one can remain inactive for a
single moment. Inertia i.e.,inaction is death.munotes.in
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The Gita preaches Nishkama Karma Yoga i sperforming one’s
duties without any expect ation for the rewards. The path of Action
is twofold —1) Performance of prescribed duties and 2)
Performance of duties without any desire for reward.
2.3.3.1 Prescribed Duties
The Gita prescribes Swadharma. Swadharma includes the
duties according to one’s own nature (u.e. Varna Dharma) and the
duties according to one’s life stages ( i.e., Ashrama dharma). The
Gita declares that it is always better to follow one’s own duties. To
follow the duties of others is bad and clearly dangerous. The Gita
seeks self-realization as well as social unity (Lok Sangrah). The
performance of duties as per one’s disposition, leads to social
welfare.
Every individual is endowed with specific physical
tendencies viz purity (sattva), energy (rajas) and ignorance (tamas).
The pred ominance and combination of these tendencies result in
four classes (Varnas) of people. These four classes are -Brahmin,
Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.
Every individual has to follow Ashrama dharma. Everyone
passes through various stages of life, namely a student
(Brahmaharim), a house holder (Grihastha), a retired person
(Vanaprastha) and a wandering monk (Sanyasin). Each class
(Varna) and each stage of life (Ashrama) has its own prescribed
duties. The performance of one’s duties leads to individual as w ell
as social welfare. A good man acts for the good of others, for the
benefit of humanity in perfect detachment, disinterest and
selflessness with no desire to reap fruit.munotes.in
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2.3.3.2 Disinterested performance of duties
A common man always hopes for the re ward of his actions.
Desires bind a man. The performance of duties has dual
attachment. 1. Feelings of an agent 2. Interest in the fruits of the
action.
Every action result in reaction and thus the chain of actions
continues .T h i sc h a i n i.e., the bondage can be stopped by
detachment. The detachment is twofold. Firstly, one has to realize
that the true agent of all activities is prakriti and not the individual.
Secondly the interest and desire regarding the fruits of action
should be given up.
The Gita preaches the path of Nishkam Karma. Our duties
must be performed without selfish motive. We have to offer the
fruits of our actions to the Divine. We have a right to the
performance of our duties, but we do not have any right to the
rewards of our actions. Actions are our sphere, fruits are not our
concern.
The ideal of the Gita is performance of duties in a detached
spirit. The Gita teaching stands, not for renunciation of action but
for renunciation in action. The Gita does not preach to renounce
everyt hing but to renounce the selfish desires and the fruits of one’s
actions. The individual should give up any expectation for the
rewards. His actions should be the performance of his prescribed
duties. The Gita ethics is neither hedonistic nor ascetic. It
condemns the wild pursuit of pleasures, as well as suppression of
desires. The Gita prescribes controlled satisfaction of human
desires.munotes.in
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Check your progress
Which paths did the Gita prescribe to achieve the ideal of life?
Which duties did the Gita pres cribe?
What is meant by disinterested performance of duties?
2.4 STHITAPRAJNA: THE MORAL IDEAL
In chapter 2 of Bhagwad Gita, there is mention of the
characteristics of Sthitaprajna. The idol of Sthitaprajna stands as
the combination of both Samkhya bud dhi and Yoga buddhi. Yoga is
defined as the equanimity of mind. Yoga is the only way to peace
and is described as the Brahmic state. The precondition for Yoga is
the oppression of passions and performing duties without an eye
for their fruits. Yoga is atta ined through the withdrawing senses
from the attachment of their objects, casting off desires, and
transcending the pairs of extremes. Yoga thus consists of
performing one's duty and ceasing all desires, passions and
emotions, etc. Thus, Yoga is the art of performing actions.
Though Samkhya and Yoga appear to be two different
paths, on a closer look they both have similar attitudes towards the
world. Hence, Samkhya and Yoga both form the theoretical and
practical aspects of the same teaching. They both aim at internal
peace through equanimity of mind. The Gita suggests, through
Samkhya and Yoga, internal peace as the remedy for external
turbulences.
The Bhagavad Gita is not written as a kind of religious
scripture, but it is seen as the desire of Sri Krish na to show the path
to people living in the empirical world through Arjuna as a symbol of
common people. Living in this world full of problems makes a man
most of the time sad and it leads to grief. There are two waysmunotes.in
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through which one can face these probl ems and sadness, one is to
find out the reason for it and second is to make oneself mentally
stronger to face such situations. One may feel helpless and alone
at the time of difficult situations. One’s self -esteem starts lowering.
So,to get out of this de pression Sri Krishna has given this ideal of
Sthitaprajna, which is useful for everybody.
In Bhagwad Gita the ideal man is portrayed with the word
‘Sthitaprajna’. Human beings have two parts. One is ‘Sthitaprajna’
whose wisdom is steady, becoming one with Brahman, and they
belong to higher status, whereas another is ‘Chanchal Prajna’,
whose wisdom is not steady and that belongs to lower status. This
is also seen in their day-to-daybehaviour . Many Chanchal Prajna
people are living everywhere in this wo rld, but Sthitaprajna is very
few and can be seen very rarely. Every man who desires for
advancement should keep their unsteady mind aside and should
keep their mind stable. A man who is Sthitaprajna can go in
samadhi state any time or he/she can behave we ll when in a
conscious state.
In ch. 2 of Gita, Arjuna asks Sri Krishna, ‘what is the quality
of a Sthitaprajna who is steady in samadhi state? How does
Sthitaprajna talk? How does he/she walk? How can one identify
Sthitaprajna?’ and so on. The Sthitapra jna is like the great Sage.
The Sthitaprajna sees the existence of God in both good and
wicked. A Sthitaprajna is also known as a jivanmukta. In the
Bhagavad Gita, the character of the Sthitaprajna has been
described as the following:
1]Sthitaprajna is a person who is always self -content and therefore
no desire can make him/her unsettle/ unrest. Therefore his/her
wisdom is always steady. Sthitaprajna Is free from all attachments
and aversions.munotes.in
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2] Sthitaprajna is one who neither becomes sad in sorrows no rg e t s
addicted by happiness, isolates oneself from love, fear, and anger
are known as under Sthitaprajna.
3] Sthitaprajna is ever conscious of the reality of oneness, though
he behaves like an ordinary person.
4] Sthitaprajna becomes ideal for other peo ple and guides other
people. Sthitaprajna and steady minded means the same.
5] The Sthitaprajna is no longer a seeker of the Truth, but he is a
seer of truth.
6] The Sthitaprajna is a jnani, a bhakta, and a yogi.
7] Ever established in the state of yo ga, the Sthitaprajna Remains
in constant union with God and, at the same time, is the ideal
exemplar of karma -yoga, demonstrating steady wisdom through
every action.
8] The one who is fully devoted to God (Ishwar pranidhan.). That
person has all qualities of great sages. But one who is not
Sthitaprajna does not have such qualities. Because that person
always takes the help of his/ her mental rationale. A person who
gives up all desires aroused by this mental rationale and his/her
pure mind when only feels bliss in his/her satisfied self then that
person becomes Sthitaprajna and meditation is no less an action
than everyday activity.
9] Not to feel sad in sorrow, not to get overwhelmed by happiness,
to get rid of the addiction, fear, and anger and to keep q uiet i.e.,
less speaking are the qualities of Sthitaprajna.munotes.in
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10] Self -absorbed always does nishkam karma for everyone. He
always works for the sake of humanity.
When a person keeps all his higher desires aside and when
he is fully satisfied with his or he rm i n df i x e di na t m a ni sk n o w na s
sthitaprajna. ‘Desire covers wisdom as smoke covers fire.’ Wisdom
covered by desire does not see things right, it just sees the illusion
and believing it to be true leads to the bondage of the soul. The
mind which is contr olled leads to the steadiness of wisdom (prajna).
Then wisdom, free from delusion, looks at things in the right way in
equanimity.
The man whose wisdom or is steady, neither and nor gates
objects, neither depressed nor exhausted in failure and success.
He is called that prajna or a wise man. This equanimity of mind is
called Yoga. Only steady minded can acquire wisdom and only a
wise man can meditate and only a meditating man can attain peace
and happiness can be attain only by one who is peaceful. As pea ce
is the only tool which ends all miseries. When an action is done
without desire and attachment it is equal to inaction, he is liberated
from the action. According to Gita the state of Sthitaprajna is the
last station in the Gita. He says, "Attain the st ate of Sthitaprajna,". It
is necessary to keep quiet/ talk less about being Sthitaprajna. One
who wants to be Sthitaprajna should not get attached, or addicted
to, or should not love and hate anything or anybody. Sthitaprajna
should keep all his/her senses inside like a turtle. He /she never
makes his/her senses flow anywhere. He always controls them.
And this is possible for him/her because he is devoid of all desires.
He/she knows his/her nature and that’s why he/she achieves the
status of Brahman. Till t he last moment of his/her life, he/she stays
in this state, and because of which he/she achieves eternal peace,
i.e., creation of brahman and he/she becomes one with ultimate
Brahman.munotes.in
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How the ocean despite filling itself stays calm, like that a
person nev er feels unrest when he/she faces the calamities, only
that person can achieve peace, unlike other people who always
fight to complete their desire never get peace. A person who has
given up on all desires does not have a false ego can only achieve
peace o f mind or can become Sthitaprajna.
Sthitaprajna naturally absorbs things with his/her senses, but
he/she is devoid of anger and envy. His/her all senses are within
his/her control, because of which his/her mind is in a calm state.
Due to his/her endless s elf-contentment all his/her sorrows go
away, his/her mind stays in the state of ultimate bliss. It's a task of
all yogis, devotees, or saints to keep his/her senses within control
according to his/her plan. But a lot of people are slaves of their
senses an d therefore they work under the guidance of their senses.
The metaphor used for the senses is of poisonous snakes. They
want to wander freely without any restrictions. The Yogi or devotee
should be very strong like a snake charmer that he/she should
contro l those serpents like senses. That person can never give
freedom to his/her senses to flow freely. A person must stick to all
the rules given in scripture.
The one who struggles to become Sthitaprajna Should/must
follow the path of Nishkam buddhi yoga (w isdom) / desire less act
and should take up the idea of perfect feeling (sarvatma bhava)
from the starting point, this is the saying of Gita.
Check your progress
1.Explain the Concept of Sthitaprajna.
2.What are Characteristics of Sthit aprajna mention in B hagwad
Gita, Explain in Detail .munotes.in
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2.5 THE CONCEPT OF DHARMA WITH REFERENCE
TO RTA, RNA & PURUSHARTHA
The concept of Dharma is the unique and comprehensive
concept in Indian philosophy. The Sanskrit word ‘Dharma’ cannot
be exactly translated in English lan guage. The word ‘Dharma’ is
derived from the Sanskrit root,’dhr’ which means to sustain, to
support or to preserve. In Indian philosophy the word ‘Dharma’ is
used in various ways.
In Rigveda, the word ‘Dharma’ stands for natural or cosmic
law. The cosmic law ‘Rta’ reflects in the society as ‘Dharma’. It also
stands for moral laws and moral conduct.
In Chandogya Upanishad, ‘Dharma’ stands for the
performance of duties related to the stages of life that is Aashram -
Dharma.
In ‘Aitareya Brahman’ the word ‘Dharma’ stands for right
conduct. The king is the preserver of ‘Dharma’ that prescribes code
of conduct.
In Mahabharat, the word ‘Dharma’ is defined as
‘dharanatdharayateityahu’. ‘Dharma’ is that which holds together
the society.
In Vaisheshika philo sophy, ‘Dharma’ is that which leads to
prosperity and the highest good or spiritual well being.
In Mimamsa philosophy, the word ‘Dharma’ is a Vedic
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Manu Smruti and Yadnyavalkya Smruti, hold ‘Dharma’ as
performance of duties prescribed by individual’s Varna (the class)
as well as Aashrama (the stages of life).
Dr Radhakrishnan wrote, “We may define ‘Dharma’ as the whole
duty of man in relation to the fourfold purposes of life [Dharma,
Artha, Kama & Moksha] by members of four groups [Chaturvarna]
and and the four stages [Chaturashrama].”
Indian ethical view correlates three strings of morality in
human life –subjective, social and spiritual. Purushartha implies
achievement of subjective morality that is individuals o wn goals.
Varnashrama implies social morality. An individual cannot live a
solitary life. The concept of Rna implies the sense of gratitude for
whatever a person receives from his fellow beings. An individual’s
spiritual liberation is possible only through disinterested
performance of duties.
The concept Dharma is depicted in the concept of Rta as a
Cosmic Law. It is depicted as a Duty in the concept of Rna in a
social sense. The concept of Dharma plays an imp role in the
theory of Purushartha. It guides the individual at a fundamental
level in the pursuit of values in his life The concepts of Rta (the
eternal cosmic order), Rna (the debts) and Purushartha (the
Supreme Ends) provide the metaphysical foundation to the moral
life of an individual.
2.5.1 Th eC o n c e p to fR T A
The concept of Rta is the fundamental concept in Vedic
philosophy. Rta is the eternal, cosmic and moral order. Rta
represents the basic truth, harmony or system of the universe
which no one can violate. Rta is Truth or truths (Sathya Saimunotes.in
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satyam), centre of centres (Kendrasya Kendram). It is the Divine
order which is designated as “Vrata” in Vedic literature.
In the physical sphere Rta represents the eternal and
inviolable law of nature. Rotation of Heavenly stars, alteration of
day and ni ghts, flow of rivers, oceans, etc. are regulated by Rta.
Rta is the unity -in-difference in the cosmic order. It maintains
everything in its correct place.
The principal of Rta is eternal and omnipresent principal. It is
immanent in all the creations of C osmos. Rta is the binding
principal of this cosmos, whether physical or moral.
In the moral sphere, Rta is righteousness. It is the measure
of morality. Those who follow the path of Rta, follow the path of
Good. They are called Vratani. The path of Rta ( Vrata) is consistent
with natural cosmic order. The path of Rta leads a man to
harmonious, prosperous and contented life.
Anrta is opposite of Rta. Anrta represents complete disorder
and confusion. The path of Aorta goes against the natural laws. It
leads a man towards disease and death.
Vedic Gods are Guardians of Rta. [Rtasya Gopa]. However,
Gods are not superior to the cosmic and moral order. Gods
themselves are subject to Rta.
Varuna, the God of Sky and Heavenly light is the Guardian
of this unive rse. Varuna was believed to be the most powerful God
that was enthroned as the ruler of universes. He is the Custodian of
Rta. Varuna has the responsibility to maintain the supremacy of
cosmic as well as moral order. Varuna sets the eternal laws tomunotes.in
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protect Rta, that no one can violate. Varuna was essentially
supposed to be God of Peace.
Varuna is omniscient God with the Sun and the Moon as his
eyes. So,he has the strong, all searching vigilant sight. At least sin
will not escape detection by him. Varuna and other Gods maintain
Rta, the eternal cosmic and moral order Varuna is omniscient God
with the Sun and the Moon as his eyes. So,he has the strong, all
searching vigilant sight. At least sin will not escape. Those who
follow the path of Rta, Gods are be nevolent and helpful to them.
Gods are angry when the path of Rta is not followed. Thus, Rta is
responsible for the apportionment of reward and punishment. For
Gods, Rta has metaphysical relevance and for human beings Rta
has ethical relevance. Life of re ason leads to righteous behaviour
that confirms the solidarity and sovereignty of cosmic and moral
order consequently human beings are rewarded by Gods. Life of
passions (Anrta) leads to chaotic behaviour that harms the
solidarity and sovereignty of cosmi ca n dm o r a lo r d e r .
Consequently, human beings are punished by Gods. The concept
of the eternal, inviolable cosmic and moral order gradually shapes
itself into the Law of Karma, the peculiar characteristic of Indian
philosophy.
2.5.2 Concept of RNA
Indian ethics has a special characteristic of the Ashram
system. Every individual by nature passes through various stages
of life. Indian thinkers correlate the stages of individuals to society.
Indian thinkers prescribed duties at every stage of life. The
prescribed duties contribute to the social welfare and social
stability. The Ashram system has four stages. Every individual pass
through the stages of a Brahmacharin (a student), a Grihastha (a
house holder), a Vanaprastha (retired) and a Sanyasin (amunotes.in
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wanderin g monk.) The stage of a householder is very important for
the stability of the society. The individual enters into the first unit of
society i.e., family, by entering Grihastha ashrama. A householder
enjoys the pleasures of life. At the same time, he has m any
responsibilities. He has to take care of his family, the guests and
other society members. The concept of Rna implies obligation and
responsibility. Man is a social animal. His development is possible,
because many other fellow beings have, in some or other way,
contributed to his progress. The individual is under obligation of
many members of his society.
The individual is born with 3 Rnas namely Rishi Rna (debt of
sages / teachers), Pitru Rna (debt of the ancestors) and Deva Rna
(Divine debt)
1. Rishi Rna
Rishi Rna is also called Guru Rna. The first stage in the life
of an individual i.e., Brahmacharya ashrama (a student) is spent
with a teacher. In ancient times, the sages, wise people were
guideposts of society. The wisdom of the sages was passe df r o m
one generation to another generation. The sages played an
important role in the development of the individual as well as in
social progress. By learning Vedas by giving fees, by showing
respect by being grateful, Rishi Rna can be discharged. In
Brah macharya ashrama, an individual becomes free from Rishi
Rna.
2. Pitra Rna
An individual owes many things including his own existence to his
ancestors. It becomes the responsibility of the individual to sustain
the family by giving birth to the next gene ration. By begetting
children, the individual becomes free from the debt of his ancestors.munotes.in
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Thus, in Grihastha Ashrama, an individual becomes free from Pitra
Rna.
3. Deva Rna
God has created this universe. God is the sustainer of this
universe. Whatever we receive from nature, is due to the blessings
of God. The forces of nature are beyond the control of human
beings. To please these forces, men used to perform sacrifices.
Performance of sacrifices was a way to show respect to deities.
Forces of nature ar e like supernatural, mighty, powerful agents. A
man in such a world is at the mercy of God. By performing
sacrifices, man becomes free from the Divine debt. In Grihastha
and in Vanaprastha Ashrama, an individual becomes free from
Deva Rna.
By repaying th ree Rnas the individual reaches the stage of
‘Annrunya’ which means freedom from all Rnas. Only after reaching
the stage of Aarunya, an individual can prepare himself for the
highest purushartha -Moksha
The concept of Rna -traya [3 debts] is a commonly kn own
concept. However, “Shataphath Brahman” refers to fourth debt Viz.
Manushya Rna. It is an obligation towards humanity. By helping
other human beings an individual becomes free from debt towards
humanity.
2.5.3 Purushartha
The Indian thinkers were not o nly interested in knowing the
Ultimate Reality but in realizing the Ultimate Reality. Philosophy is
an art of living a good life. They prescribed Four Supreme Ends
that are Purusharthas. The term ‘Purushartha’ means the goal or
the End that every human bei ng (man or woman) ought to seek.
The Purushartha Vada is a comprehensive Indian theory of humanmunotes.in
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values. Man is a rational, social, moral and spiritual being. His
needs are to be satisfied. Good life consists in the pursuit of four
Supreme Ends, namely Dhar ma (Virtue), Artha (Wealth), Kama
(Desire) and Moksha (Liberation). Artha satisfies material needs of
individuals, Kama satisfies psychological needs and Moksha aims
at spiritual satisfaction. Dharma accompanies throughout life.
Initially only three Puru sharthas i.e., Dharma, Artha and
Kama were recognized as the supreme ends. These three supreme
ends were named as ‘Trivarga’. Later on,Moksha (Liberation) as
the supreme end was introduced. These four Purusharthas are
classified into two groups. Artha and Kama are considered as lower
and material values. Dharma and Moksha are considered as higher
and spiritual values.
DHARMA -Purushartha
The term ‘Dharma’ is derived from the root ‘dhr’ meaning to
hold together, to sustain, and to nourish. Thus ‘Dharma’ literally
means ‘That which holds together.’ It is the basis of harmony in
individual life and order in society. Dharma is therefore the basis of
social and moral order. [“Dharana Sharma Yahuh”] Dharma as the
Supreme End stands for the principles that lea dt ot h eh a r m o n yi n
social relationships and integrity of an individual’s personality.
Among the four Purusharthas, Dharma is always mentioned
first. It is given priority over others because all human pursuits have
to be compatible with moral values and principles. Dharma is said
to be the special characteristic of human beings. All living organism
are indulged in eating, sleeping, tear, and sex. Dharma is the
distinguishing characteristic of Human beings. Dharma indicates
moral and reflective awareness. Man is essentially a rational and
spiritual being. He is not satisfied with the mere satisfaction ofmunotes.in
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biological needs of hunger, sex and safety. He has higher needs –
psychological, moral and spiritual.
Dharma is classified into Sadharana Dharma that is General
virtues and duties and Vishesha Dharma that is Special virtues and
duties.
Sadharana Dharma includes the actions which are indicative
of the general virtues like non -violence in thought, word and deed,
truthfulness, non -stealing, purity, knowledg e, veracity, patience,
gentleness, forbearance, honesty, self -control, charity, moderation,
compassion, respect for others’ property and contentment. Such
virtues and duties are obligatory on all human beings irrespective of
their class or creed. These vir tues and duties are useful for self -
development. They are self -regarding as well as other -regarding
virtues .
Vishesha Dharma is related to one’s class in society and to
the particular stage of life. Vishesha Dharma is classified into two
Varna Dharma and Ashrama Dharma.
Varna Dharma prescribes the duties related to the aptitude
of person. These are professional duties, each performed to
develop certain professional skills. Their main aim is social
solidarity or social stability. The Bhagavad Gita speaks of three
dispositions of human beings. These are three Gunas namely,
Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. Sattva Guna represents Wisdom, Rajas
Guna represents Activity and TmasGuna represents Inertia
(Ignorance and Inactivity). Every individual is composed of three
gunas. The predominance of any gunas leads to the classification
of Four Varnas i.e.,a class in the society.munotes.in
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1) Brahmins: It is the class of preachers, teachers, intellectuals, and
priests.They were expected to pursue knowledge and wisdom.
Brahmins were su pposed to be the guides and custodians of moral
and spiritual values in society.
2) Kshatriyas: It is the class of rulers, warriors and administrators.
They were expected to protect the society from external invasions
and internal disorder.
3) Vaishy as: It is the class of farmers and traders. The farmers and
traders were expected to cultivate the land, to protect the cows and
to trade, so the requirements of the society should be fulfilled.
4) Shudras: It is the class of all other supportive workers ,e . g .
producers, workers, carpenters, blacksmiths, barbers, goldsmiths,
etc. Shudras was the class of skilled laborers and producers, such
as artisans and craftsmen as well as toilers and workers.
The qualities of knowledge, power, wealth and service ar e
found respectively in the four Varnas namely Brahmin, Kshatriya,
Vaishya and Shudra. Today, Varna system has degenerated into
Caste system which is not at all concerned with the disposition of
an individual.
Devotion to one’s own duty and renunciation of the fruits of
one’s actions to the Highest Spiritual Authority (God) was expected
from all the members of the society. The regular dedicated
performance of one’s own duty leads to the Highest Goal of life
namely Moksha (Liberation).
Ashrama Dharma pre scribes duties related to the stages of
life. Life was considered as a spiritual journey towards the final goal
of Moksha. It was divided into four stages. They are ---munotes.in
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1.Brahmacharya ashrama: Student life. The student has to
acquire knowledge, develop certa in skills and get educated in
human values. It is the period of self -discipline and preparation
2.Grhastha asrama: Householder’s stage. The householder has
to enter into the social institution of marriage and family to fulfill
social responsibilities.
3.Vanaprastha ashrama: Life of retirement. In this stage, the
family bonds and relations are to be loosened. The individual
should strive for the good of the whole society and his spiritual
self-development.
4. Sanyasi ashrama: Ascetic stage. It is the sta ge of renunciation.
The individual has to live the life of a wandering monk. The ascetic
is wholly devoted to seek the spiritual good of him and that of
others.
ARTHA -Purushartha
‘Artha’ as Purushartha stands for attainment of wealth.
Wealth includes all the means that are essential to satisfy natural
needs and desires: cattle, farming, food, money, property and profit
constitute wealth. It includes all the resources that generate wealth.
Artha stands for that which satisfies the biological, material a nd
economic needs of an individual.
Artha has a social significance. Every society generates
wealth and every member contributes to the creation of wealth.
Wealth has to fulfill social functions. It must serve human purposes.
The Supreme End ‘Artha’, o ught to be earned and utilized in
accordance with the moral principles that is Dharma. Artha also
stands for power and authority. It must be linked with morality andmunotes.in
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welfare of the people. Artha in the form of wealth or power should
not be acquired by unet hical means. It should be achieved by
righteousness and should be used with generosity, compassion
and good faith.
Artha is a means to fulfill our desires. The satisfaction of
desires leads to Kama Purushartha. Fulfillment of Kama leads to
Moksha. In thi s way, Artha as well as Kama are instrumental to
attain Moksha.
KAMA -Purushartha
Kama is associated with the satisfaction of natural instincts,
desires and emotional aspects of human beings. Kama means a
pleasure one gets from the satisfaction of desir es. It also means
affection and love. Kama as a Supreme End includes sensual
enjoyment as well as aesthetic joy. It covers all the aspects of the
gratification of biological motives and emotional satisfaction. Kama
refers to both self -preservation and race preservation.
Kama also indicates joyful aesthetic experiences. The
‘feeling’ aspect of human nature seeks the ideal of ‘Beauty’. Beauty
reveals itself in aesthetic experiences. Aesthetic experience is the
experience of disinterested interest. It is imp ersonal and non -
utilitarian. The ideal of Beauty is expressed through harmony, order
and Art. Art helps the elevation and sublimation of natural desires.
Indian thinkers hold that the person who has satisfied his physical
and psychological needs by moral principles can experience the
eternal Bliss. An emotionally discontented man cannot rise to the
spiritual level. The satisfaction of desires leads to the state of
calmness and peace in mind. Ancient thinkers did not advocate
blind pursuit of pleasure. To satisfy emotional needs one should not
break moral or social laws. The Supreme End Kama should bemunotes.in
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strived in accordance with Dharma –the moral principles.
MOKSHA –Purushartha
Moksha is an end -in-itself. It is the Supreme End that has
intrinsic value. I ti st h eU l t i m a t eE n do fh u m a nl i f e .I ti st h e
Summum Bonum (the Highest Good). Liberation is associated with
the spiritual level of human beings. It is characterized by the feeling
of complete satisfaction of desires and bliss.
Moksha or Liberation is i nterpreted in terms of Eternal Bliss.
The intense awareness of one’s imperfection in the form of
ignorance, weakness, dependence, etc. makes man reflect upon
the nature of his true self and happiness. The pleasure we get from
objects through sensuous exper ience or enjoyment is temporary,
short -lived, uncertain, and usually mixed up with pain. Therefore,
one seeks freedom from the bondage of desires that is ‘eternal
happiness’ or ‘Bliss’.
Moksha is also interpreted as freedom from the cycle of birth
and de ath; freedom from the bondage of merit & demerit, vice &
virtue.
Moksha is the actual realization of one’s true self. This is
spiritual self -realization. When the seeker loses his distinct identity
and realizes his True Self or the Eternal Reality, he ge ts liberated.
Moksha or Liberation is the pursuit of ideals. When the gap
between ‘What is’ and ‘What ought to be’ disappears, the individual
achieves Liberation.
Moksha as the highest Purushartha is interpreted in two
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1) Videha Mukti: Some Indi an thinkers hold that human beings are
bound by psycho -physical conditions. He is finite and imperfect. So
Moksha can be attained only after the death of the physical body.
Moksha is not possible within this material body.
2) Jeevan Mukti: Some Indian th inkers hold that Moksha is
attainable here in this world while one is alive. Moksha can be
attained in the finite physical body through proper and purified
conduct. The ardent desire for Moksha after the physical, mental
and moral purification leads to the highest level of consciousness. It
leads to attainment of Moksha in this physical body.
Following prayer indicates the intense desire of man to seek
Liberation ---
Lead me from the unreal to the real the Ultimate Reality, Lead me
from darkness to light (Knowledge), Lead me from death to
immortality (Eternal Bliss).
Asato maa sad \gamaya È
tmasaao maa jyotIR -gamaya È
maR%yaao|maa -AmaRtMgamaya ÈÈ
INTEGRITY OF FOUR SUPREME ENDS
Prof Shah and Dr. Sunder Rajan believe that the theory of
Purushartha Vad a is the perfect moral theory. All human problems
can be solved by Purushartavada. The four Supreme Ends form
one complete whole. One Purushartha is meaningless without
another. These Supreme Ends can coordinate individual and social
ideals at any time. Th ey define the very human nature in terms of
goals.munotes.in
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Four Purushartha are intimately connected with one another.
Dharma leads to Artha, Artha leads to Kama, Kama leads to
Moksha. There is integrity among Four Purusharthas. Every
Supreme End (Purushartha) f orms the foundation for the next
Supreme End. Dharma accompanies Artha. Artha means Kama
and Kama leads to Moksha. Dharma without Moksha leads to mere
rituals. Artha without Dharma is greediness. Kama without Artha
will be lust. Moksha without other Purush arthas will be hollow and
abstract.
Check your Progress
1. What is the concept of Dharma in Indian literature?
2. State the meaning of Rta in Indian philosophy?
3. What is meant by Rna -Traya?
4. Name the Purusharthas.
5. State the nature of Dharma as a P urushartha.
2.6 SUMMARY
Indian view of moral philosophy is different from that of
Western Philosophy. In Western philosophy ethics is an intellectual
inquiry whereas in Indian view, it is the way of life to realize the
ultimate reality. The concept of D HARMA is the unique concept of
Indian philosophy. It is not just religion -the faith one follows.
Dharma is depicted in Rta, Rna and Purushartha. Rta is Dharma as
the eternal cosmic order that prevails in this universe. Rna is
Dharma as a moral duty in the life of a person. Purushartha is
Dharma in the achievement of subjective morality.
The Bhagavad Gita preaches the path of action i.e.
Nishkama Karma Yoga, being a Moral Ideal i.e. Sthitaprajna. The
Gita advocates disinterest in the performance of duties .H o w e v e r ,munotes.in
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the Gita prescribes specific duties of an individual as per his
aptitude and as per his stage of life. In other words, the Gita
prescribes Varna -Ashrama dharma. The Gita ethics promotes
individuals as well as social welfare.
2.7 BROAD QUESTION S
1.Explain the salient features of Karmayoga in the Gita.
2.Elaborate the of notion of Purushartha
3.Explain in Detail, Sthitaprajna as the Moral Ideal.
4.Write short notes –
•The concept of Rta
•The concept of Rna
•The Gita notion of swadharma.
•The conce pt of Dharma
•‘Moksha’ as Purushartha
•‘Dharma’ as Purushartha
•Features of sthitaprajna.
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Unit -3
THE GOOD LIFE: GREEK ETHICS
UNIT STRUCTURE -
3.0 Objectives
3.1Introduction
3.2Nature of Virtue
3.3 Socratic concept of Virtue
3.4Plato’s Concept of Virtues
3.5Aristotelian Concept of Virtue
3.6Summary
3.7Broad Questions
3.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand the meaning of good life as conceived by two
great ancient Greek philosophers viz. Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle.
To know vi rtues which constitute good human life.
To understand Socratic Concept of virtue and study how and
why he equates virtue with wisdom.
To understand the contribution of Plato and Aristotle to the
concept of good life and the ethics of virtues and character .
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Normative ethics studies voluntary human conduct from the
standpoint of good and bad, right and wrong. It also investigatesmunotes.in
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various norms or standards of human conduct. Moreover, it
analyses virtues which constitute human character. We generally
pass moral judgements on human conduct and character. This unit
discusses Plato’s views on good human life and virtues.
3.2 NATURE OF VIRTUE
Before we discuss Plato’s idea of cardinal virtues, we must
know the meaning of the concept of virtue. W e pass moral
judgements on man’s voluntary actions, his intentions or motives,
and finally on his character. Thus, one of the objects of our moral
judgement is the character of a human being. Character of a man is
the organisation of man’s sentiments, qual ities, attitudes and
habits. It is always in the process of formation and transformation.
Though it is not fixed, it is more or less permanent integration of
psychological traits and moral virtues.
Normative ethics, therefore, analyses the moral qualities or
attributes which constitute moral character of a human being. Such
qualities are called virtues. Etymologically, the word ‘vir’ means
hero. The Sanskrit word ‘vira’ also means hero. Prof. P.B.
Chatterjee in this connection writes: The English word, ‘vi rtue’
corresponds to the Latin ‘virtus’ and Sanskrit ‘virya’ meaning valour
or manliness, power, energy, or excellence. For the Greeks also,
virtue indicates excellence. Virtues, thus, are good traits of
character and vices are bad traits of character. Vir tues as good
traits of character can be and must be deliberately cultivated. They
make for the survival and the well -being of the human individual
and also that of the society.
Human beings admire the qualities of a person who
possesses them and exhibits them in his dealings with others and
in difficult situations. So they can also be called as the good habits
of human beings. It is, therefore, rightly said that moral life does notmunotes.in
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grow in a vacuum. Good life or moral life is developed through the
habitual or regular doing of good deeds or actions in changing
situations. Character and conduct of a man are intimately related.
Conduct of a man is the expression of his character in varied
situations. On the contrary, moral character of a person is formed
when he does good actions consistently and persistently. For
instance, one can become dutiful by doing one’s duty honestly and
efficiently. So a verse goes:
Sow an act, reap a habit,Sow a habit, reap a character; Sow
a character, reap a destiny. In this way, v irtues can be cultivated
and can be termed as character -values. Since virtues can be
cultivated, they can also be described as the acquired dispositions
of a virtuous person. Hence, virtues denote the excellence of
human character, while vices are the defe cts of character. These
virtues, in other words, refer to the inner traits of man’s being. So
they constitute the morality of being, while duty and good actions
refer to the morality of doing. One simple but profound message of
any great man is: Be good an dd og o o d ,a n dt h ew a yt ob eg o o di s
through the doing of good actions consistently.
Duties are obligatory actions. A man does his duty. Virtue
refers to the moral quality of a person. We, therefore, correctly say
that a particular person is virtuous if h e possesses good qualities.
Such a virtuous person is not only good but he also does good
deeds. He does not take holidays from virtues. The existence of
virtues in a person is inferred from the habitual good conduct of that
person. One has to choose to be virtuous and pursue the path of
good and right actions. Virtues promote the well -being of their
possessors and also of their society, while vices run counter to the
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3.3 (KNOWLEDGE AS VIRTUE) -SOCRATES
(469-399 BC)
Socrate si so f t e np o p u l a r l yr e g a r d e da st h ef a t h e ro f
Western Philosophy. He never wrote anything in his life on
philosophy. Whatever Socratic Philosophy and Ethics has reached
us is though plato’, dialogues and other writings of the past.
Though Socrates never w rote anything in Philosophy, he achieved
such a distinguished position in Philosophy because he actually
practiced Philosophy or ‘wisdom’, throughout his life. It would not
be an exaggeration if we say that “he lived for philosophy and died
for philosophy” .
In spite of being such a wise person, his most famous, often
quoted statement is, “I only know one thing that, I know nothing”.
There are two different characteristics of Socratic Philosophy
viz a) Scientific b) practical
a)Scientific :“ A l lk n o w l e d ge is through concepts” (definitions) is
the scientific aspect of his Philosophy.
b)Practical : “Virtue is knowledge” is the practical aspect, or
ethical aspect of his philosophy Socrates, with the help of his
Philosophy thoroughly refuted Sophistry i.e., So phists theory of
knowledge. Similarly, by equating virtue with knowledge he
could break the relativistic and subjectivity ethics of Sophists.
He practically demonstrated how the famous quote of
Protagoras “I am the measure of all things of What is right th at
is right .......” would lead to utter confusion in human society.
In this respect, W.T. Stace writes, “Socrates did the
restoration of faith and for this reason it is said that he broughtmunotes.in
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Philosophy from Heaven to Earth and made it dwell in the low roof
house of man”.
The important points of Socratic Ethics are found in Plato’s
dialogue, “Apology” they may be summarized as below: -
1)‘Wisdom is Virtue’
Socrates earnestly believes that ‘wisdom’, alone begets
virtuous behaviour. Of course, ‘Wisdom is not t ob ee q u a t e d
with information. But it is the conviction of the soul about what
good and right is and what is wrong. Wisdom is the clear
vision about consciously choosing the ‘right’ or ‘good’ option in
life. E.g., if you have this knowledge that cheating is wrong
you will never cheat.
2)Tend Thy Soul
Concern for wisdom and truth is the highest good, on view of
Socrates. Seeking virtue therefore means cultivating soul,
building character and not running after worldly things like
money and comfort.
3)It is bet ter to suffer evil than to do evil
According to Socrates suffering evilharm sour body but not our
soul. In fact, soul is strengthened through suffering. Thus, one
should suffer evil rather than doing wrong / evil to others.
4)No person is truly happy unless he is virtuous
“Virtue is Happiness”, is the central theme of entire Greek
Ethics. However, happiness, in this context means
‘contentment’. Thus, virtue is the only eternal way towards
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5)'Virtue’ is its own reward
Doing right or good action, itself is a reward ‘Virtue has
intrinsic value in human life. In fact, it does not lead to
happiness but “virtue is Happiness” .
This is a deontological approach towards Ethics. Virtue is to
be sought for its own sake and not for any external effects of i t.
Thus, knowledge is virtue according to Socrates and Vice is
ignorance. All wrong -doing arises out of ignorance. No human
being intentionally does wrong. If a man knows what is right, he
will infallibly do what is right.
The theory of virtue generally includes many virtues like
‘courage’, temperance, ‘kindness’ and so on. However, on view of
Socrates all these virtues arise from one and the only source or
fountainhead namely ‘knowledge’. The different virtues are simply,
varied forms of the only virtue that is knowledge of wisdom.
To conclude, for Socrates wisdom alone brings virtue which
necessarily brings about true happiness and contentment.
Check your progress
1)Explain the Socratic concept of virtue
2)Describe the main points of Socratic Ethics.
3.4 PLATO’S CONCEPT OF VIRTUES -(PLATO 427
B.C. –347 B.C.)
Plato was a great Greek philosopher. He is known as a true
disciple of Socrates. Plato’s doctrine of cardinal virtues is based on
his concept of virtue. According to Plato, goodness consists of the
natural and proper functioning of human nature. Besides, man is
social by nature; therefore, society is a normal background of moral
life of human beings. Socrates had said that virtue is knowledge. Itmunotes.in
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means that insight into the nature of moral virtue s is essential for
becoming virtuous. Of course mere knowledge of virtue is not
enough. Man has to cultivate virtues through the habit of doing
obligatory and morally good actions. For Plato, good life is the life
of virtues. Plato has described four impor tant virtues in his theory of
morality. According to him the cultivation of these four virtues -
wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice -constitutes a morally
good life. Later on, these four virtues came to be called ‘Cardinal
virtues’. The term ‘cardin al’ is derived from the word ‘Cardo’ ‘Cardo’
means a hinge or a hook which supports the door, and on which
the door turns. The four virtues are cardinal because they support
moral life of man in society. They are fundamental virtues. Other
virtues depend u pon them and are therefore subordinate to them.
Thus, cardinal virtues, according to Frankena, are a set of virtues
which cannot be derived from one another; and all other moral
virtues can be derived from them or shown to be forms of them.
These four vir tues are said to be the basic and important
constituents of moral life or goodness of man. Morality consists in
knowing and maintaining the harmony between the rational and
non-rational elements of the self. It is called ‘Justice’ by Plato.
Malfunctioning of any part of the self will have adverse effects upon
the other parts. Thus, the key to moral life is the proper integration
of the three parts of the self. According to Plato, the human self or
soul is tripartite. The three elements or parts of human bei ngs are:
1.(1)Passionate or Appetitive Element (Passions)
2.(2)Spirited or Dynamic & Executive Element (Will)
3.(3)Philosophical or Rational Element (Reason or Intellect)
This integration can be achieved when the spirited element
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Wisdom is the virtue of reason. It consists in knowing and
mastering the non -rational elements viz. spirited element and
passions. It includes knowledge, insight and foresight based on that
knowledge. It is not bookish knowledge/ data/information only. It
implies the active choice of values as against disvalues, or virtues
as against vices. A man is wise in whom reason rules over the
other impulses.
Courage is the virtue of the spirited element. It must perform
its heroic function within the limits set by reason. It is of two types
viz. physical courage of a soldier and moral courage of a thinker or
a reformer. Thus, one can be courageous in war as well as in
intellectual convictions. Courage, therefore, is the excellence in the
activity of the will. A man is brave when the spirited element holds
fast to the instructions of intellect.
Temperance or self -control consists in keeping bodily
satisfactions within limits. Passions are not to be condemned. Even
they are to be satisfied. T he passionate element is both non -moral
and non -rational. It needs to be regulated and subjected to the
rules of reason. Temperance is not complete abstinence. It is the
principle of self -restraint and moderation. It is the controlling and
ordering of natu ral instincts, desires and sensuous pleasures. A
man is temperate when the spirited element or passionate element
yields to intellect and obey its commands.
Justice is the virtue of the whole self or the complete person.
It is the proper integration of di fferent parts of the self. Thus, justice
also consists of the harmonious functioning of the three parts of
personality. Each part must do its function for which it is fit. When
these three parts of the personality or the self with their three
virtues of wi sdom, courage and temperance function harmoniously
together and are ordered and ruled by reason, then justice emerges
as the resultant virtue. Each man is fit for a particular job inmunotes.in
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accordance with his nature. Justice consists in doing one’s own job.
Bein g morally perfect, therefore, is tantamount to being wise,
valiant, temperate and just. Justice, then, is the supreme virtue.
Just man will not indulge in the pursuit of material pleasures only.
According to Plato, the four cardinal virtues have both
individual and social significance. They are found both in the
individual and in the society. Human beings are rational and social
animals. They have the natural tendency to live in communities.
Morality of the society is the same as it is for the individual.
According to Plato, society is the individual ‘writ large’. For society
is made up of individuals.
Each individual self consists of three parts. All the three
elements are not equally dominant in all individuals. In some
persons, the rational element is p redominant, while in others the
spirited element is powerful. Majority of the people give more
importance to the passionate element. Thus, as we have three
elements of the self so we have three classes in a society. They
are: Guardians, Auxiliaries and Civ ilians.
Guardians constitute the class of rulers. They are drawn
from that type of men in whom the rational or the philosophical
elements is dominant. Such persons live only for truth. They are
truth -seekers. They can be philosopher -kings. They are men of
knowledge and wisdom. Wisdom is their chief virtue.
The auxiliary class consists of those in whom the spirited
element is dominant. They live for honour and success. They are
good for the execution of laws and to protect the society from
internal disord er and external attack. Courage is their principal
virtue. They support the guardians and execute the laws made by
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The class of civilians consists of producers, such as farmers,
blacksmiths, fishermen, traders, carpenters, etc. In them the
element of passion is dominant. They live for material gains.
Temperance is their main virtue.
The guardians are enlightened or wise rulers. They direct and
control the majority of the people with the help of the members of
the auxiliary class. When each class does its appropriate function,
justice emerges. In a just society, the latter two classes willingly
accept the rule of the wise (guardians). Wisdom is an important
virtue. It helps a person to control his passions and per form his
duties efficiently. The virtue of justice takes note of different aspects
of a human person and integrates them. It thus stands for the
harmony in the individual as well as harmony between the
individual and community.
Check Your Progress
1)Explain the importance of the word ‘Cardinal.’
2)Discuss Plato’s Cardinal Virtues.
3.5 ARISTOTELIAN CONCEPT OF VIRTUE
(ARISTOTLE 384 B.C. –322 B.C.)
He was also a great Greek philosopher. He was the first to
write a book on ethics in the Western world. K nowledge, courage,
bravery, and perseverance by themselves do not make a morally
good character or man. Their ethical significance depends on the
motives and the values to which they are related. Aristotle,
therefore, rightly distinguishes the moral virtue s from the intellectual
virtues. The doctrine of the golden mean is central in Aristotle’s
concept of virtues.
Aristotle is also right in extending the meaning of the
important virtue of justice. He considers justice as the suprememunotes.in
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virtue. It has two form s. Distributive justice consists in the equitable
distribution of wealth and honours among the citizens of the state.
Remedial justice consists of the fair transactions among the
members of the community. The virtues are acquired through the
development of the habit of doing virtuous actions consistently.
Ability to think and ability to control one’s desires and passions is
the special virtue of man.
According to Aristotle, virtuous conduct consists in avoiding
the extremes of excess or of deficiency. For instance, excessive
indulgence is as much a vice as the excessive repression of
desires. Self-control , therefore, is a virtue. Likewise, courage is the
mean between rashness and cowardice. For instance generosity
lies between meanness and prodigality. Thus ,v i r t u ei sam a t t e ro f
striking a mean between two vices. Moral virtue thus is a mean -
state lying between two vices, viz. a vice of excess on the one side
and a vice of deficiency on the other. It is not easy to find the mean.
As Sahakian has pointed out , it consists in doing the right thing, to
the right person, to the right extent, with the right motive, and at the
right time. For instance, the practice of generosity: give generously
to the right person, at the right time, to the right extent, with the
right purpose.
3.6 SUMMARY
Thus, man has to make use of reason to determine the
mean. Virtues can be cultivated only through the practice of
choosing and doing good deeds, and through the good habits.
Aristotle points out the difficulty in selecting the p roper mean. This
mean is not a mathematical average. It is what is appropriate for
man. Practical wisdom helps man to hit this mean. An individual
knows ‘what ought to be’ by using his insight which can be
developed by practice. Passions can be tamed by co ntinuousmunotes.in
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practice of self-control . According to Aristotle, virtue consists in the
choice of mean that is the practical moderation of impulses by
reason in actual human experiences. Morality consists in the right
determination and identification of the ‘mea n’ related to the
individual in society i.e. his profession and position in society. E.g.
“Courage” of a soldier. It must be distinguished from the rashness.
Moreover the life of virtues leads to eudaemania (well -being).
There can be no two opinions about the significance and the
need of virtues for the promotion of the morally good life. Actual
morality consists in doing good deeds, and virtues are good traits or
habits of character which are productive of good works and right
conduct. These good traits o r virtues in turn can be cultivated
through the doing of good deeds and acting on moral principles.
Therefore Aristotle said that virtue is a matter of habit. Reason and
experience play a major role in choosing right actions or in hitting
the mean and avoi ding extremes. Hence the importance of both
intellectual and moral virtues.
3.7 BROAD QUEATIONS
1)What is the virtue of the class of guardians?
2)Name the virtue of the class of auxiliaries.
3)State the virtue of the class of civilians.
4)Discu ss any two of the cardinal virtue as conceived by Plato.
5)“Good life is the life of virtues and their integration.” Discuss.
6)What is Aristotle’s concept of good life?
7)How can the mean be determined?
8)“Virtue is a matter of habit.” Discuss this Aristotelian statement.
9)“Good life consists in developing both intellectual and ethical
virtues. It is both contemplative and active life.” Discuss.
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Unit -4
ARE WE FREE?: FREEDOM AND
DETERMINISM
UNIT STRUCTURE -
4.0Introduction
4.1 The Problem
4.2 A. The determinism, free will or libertarianism.
4.3Determinism or necessitarianism (Denial or Freedom)
4.4 Determinism must be distinguished from Predestination and
Fatalism
4.5 Self Determinism
4.6Conclusion
4.0 INTRODUCTION
The term Freedom is used in many senses. Freedom may
mean -
a) Psychological freedom: Freedom impression of the
spontaneous character of man’s nature.
b) Physical freedom: Freedom to move from one place to
another.
c) Civil freedom: Right to act within the units of the law.
A philosopher is generally not concerned with physical political
or economic freedom for him freedom would mean the “capacity to
choose betw een available alternatives, or the power of an individual
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In recent, times the problem of freedom is the most hotly
debated in the philosophical circles. The age old conflict has been
known as the Freed om v/s Determination Controversy. This
problem has a very strong impact in many other ethical issues. Like
responsibility, praise, blame etc. e.g. If all my actions are
determined by forces beyond my control, then what is the point in
my making future plan s. Similarly if doing an action is not my
choice, then now can I be held responsible for its good or bad
consequence?
4.1 THE PROBLEM
When compared to other things in the nature, on the one side
man being a biological organism, he is surrounded by conditions –
Social, Cultural, Physical, etc. which to a certain extent determine
his conduct. From the point of view he is a part of an universal
causal chain of events. On the other hand, man is not only a mere
animal organism. He possesses other qua lities like self -
consciousness, memory and imagination which make him a
creative being.
Armed with these qualities man is able to rise above
manipulate nature to some extent to satisfy his needs. His sense of
ethical discrimination and esthetic apprecia tion has opened new
avenues for him.
Now the problem is this: Man, being a biological organism
like any other being is a part of the chain of events and thus his
behavior is determined by the surrounding conditions. On the other
hand, being a creative b eing he possesses powders, with the help
of which he can to a certain extent control nature and manipulate it,
to suit his own needs. How can this contradiction be resolved?munotes.in
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These theories have been put forward as solutions to the
problems, let us analyze these three positions.
4.2THE DETERMINISM, FREE WILL OR
LIBERTARIANISM.
Thus view holds that an individual can determine his actions
without any motive or cause. A man is capable of arbitrarily
choosing between various alternatives. This theory claims that
man’s will is free in the sense, that it is uncaused. In other words,
the future is not completely, the consequences of the past. An
indeterminist would insist that some acts of choice are “exempt
from the operation of causal laws.”
William James a n exponent of this theory, in his essay. “The
Will to Believe” states that a universe is not a closed “block” it is
rather “open” and there is space for novelty. Spontaneity and
creativity. The different parts of an universe have considerable
“loose plain” and the future has ambiguous possibilities hidden
within it.
This theory is open to some criticism
1. Indeterminism makes human conduct too capricious and, it
fails to consider the various factors which influence conduct. One of
the main features of hum an conduct is, it is dependable. We can
depend upon the behavior of our fellow beings.
2. We find that there are different case studies of abnormal
behavior which shows that conduct can be explained as the result
of social and cultural factors, Society, f amily upbringing. Community
exposure and cultural aspects have great influence on human
conduct and behavior. Unless we accept some factors like desire,munotes.in
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motive, intention etc. the science of Psychology is not possible to
understand and predict human behavi or. If our actions are
absolutely undetermined then no one can be held responsible for
his actions. Praise, blame, applaud guilt etc. would be meaningless.
4.3DETERMINISM OR NECESSITARIANISM (DENIAL
OR FREEDOM) :
This is another extreme position that rules out human freedom
completely. Determinists are impressions by the order in nature and
the underlying principle of causation. The principle of causality in
contradiction to freedom. This theory holds that everything in the
universe, including man, is entirely governed by causal laws. In
other words, the present in always determined by the past.
4.4DETERMINISM MUST BE DISTINGUISHED FROM
PREDESTINATION AND FATALISM:
i) Predestination: is a doctrine that a person’s destiny is fixed
by divine degree. If God is an omniscient, omnipotent then things
must be determined by him. In other words, human beings will is
completely governed by the sovereign Will of God. Thus, there is
no scope for human choice.
ii) Fatalism: is a belief that events are irrevoca bly fixed, thus,
human efforts cannot change them. Everything is predetermined so
human will have no part in shape of course of events in nature. The
future is beyond his control in nature. A fatalist is always seen
making statements like “If there is a bu llet with my name on it, I’ll
get it, if there isn’t. I’ll come through unscratched, so why worry?”munotes.in
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The view has its origin or basis in the fact of human
helplessness in the presence of certain inescapable events like
death. This theory blurs all distin ctions. It puts all events under on
category, e.g. A prisoner who cannot go to the movies. Fatalistic
attitude is an obstacle to human progress.
The determinist’s appeal to the scientific postulate of
causation and the fact the psychology has succeeded i nf i n d i n gt h e
causes of human behavior strongly supports this theory. But it
should be remembered that there are different types of determinism
like Physical, Geographical, Biological (hereditary traits) and Social
or Cultural. So scientific determinism do es not necessitate the
acceptance, or physical determinism. Today there is a tendency to
regard the laws of molecules, atoms and electrons as statistical. So
one should be very cautious while affirming the type of determinism
rigidly.
Secondly, if determ inism is complete and final, then values
thinking and even truth are meaningless. It will be absurd to appeal
to ideas. Unless an individual has freedom to choose between
alternatives and to discriminate, reason is meaningless.
People who believe in comp lete determinism, make the
mistake of believing that the methods of physical sciences is the
only method. They forget that the realm of personal and non -
quantitative, factors must be excluded from the physical sciences.
Thus the results of the physical sci ences should not be extended to
human experience as a whole.
4.5 SELF DETERMINISM:
Many thinkers while solving the controversy of freedom v/s
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unreasonable conclusions. Some who believed in determinism
claimed that freedom in the sense of personal choice is an illusion.
On the other hand, thinkers who were impressed by indeterminism
carried away by the doctrine of free –will declare that determinism
is a false, proposition.
There is a third possibili ty. The thinkers who propose this view
say that it is not an “either -or” issue, it is not necessary to accept
any one view i.e. freedom or determinism alone. They see it as a
“both –and” issue.
This view is called self -determinism where the self is the
causal agent, is the center of creativity and has a degree of
freedom of choice. It links determinism and freedom and stresses
the active participation of man in the process of nature. Man being
a rational individual is able to choose among several alt ernatives,
and that these alternatives have antecedent causal connections
does not affect the element of freedom of selection. Really,
speaking, it is on the basis of these causal connections that man
selects the alternative of his choice. But this view do es not deny the
existence of deterministic process. Freedom is not freedom from
causes, it is reflection and choice one makes the fundamental
difference in the role man plays in his world. According to this view
determinism must include man’s sense of deli beration, as an
important link in the causal series. Thus, determinism when applied
to man needs to be stated in terms of self -determinism.
Titus has given the following reason in favour of human choice
or some of self-determinism :
1) The Consciousness of Freedom:
Practically all human beings have a direct and distinct
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Many a times after we have acted, we feel that we could have
acted otherwise. Philosophers who are in favor of determinism say
that we feel free merely because we are ignorant of the causes that
have influenced us. But this is not always true. Sometimes, we are
aware of why we are acting in a particular way but we still feel free.
Knowledge, intelligence and self -consciousness have given man a
great sense of freedom.
2) The sense of Personal Responsibility:
Moral obligation or a sense of ought is meaningless unless
men have the power to choose between alternatives. Kant said “I
ought implies I can”. This is a central fact in the moral life.
According to Titus, “The consciousness of freedom expresses itself
forcibly in the sense of ought. After making a choice many a time
there is a strong feeling of guilt or even blame.
3) Moral Judgments upon the conduct and character of
others :
Whenever we judge the behaviour and the character of
individual we pre -suppose that they are free moral agents. Our law
also holds people responsible depending upon their age and
experiences. Children who are not old enough to understand the
cons equence of their actions are not held responsible our enter
system of punishment, rewards, approval, disapproval, praise,
blame, pre -suppose freedom.
The more intelligent and mature a person is the more
responsible he is expected to be. This is because responsibility has
a future bearing as well as a retrospective one. We punish wrong
actions or praise good actions because this accountability is
supposed to affect his future behaviour .Ah u m a nb e i n gi sa b l et o
improve upon his actions in future.munotes.in
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This is a very strong argument against hard or rigid
determinism. Men belong to different level of existence. They
cannot be treated like inanimate things like stone or even like a
tree. We should not forget that man is unethical or a rational being
apart from being a biological animal.
4) Reflective thinking:
Many a tunes when an individual faces a number of
alternatives, he stops to reflect or deliberate upon the pros and
cons of each possible alternate. An inanimate object like a cricket
ball when hit by th e batsman, the ball cannot deliberate whether to
fall on the side of the boundary, or to go straight into the hands of
the bowler. The action is immediate and the direction is determined
by the force of the bat. In human thinking the reaction to the
stimul us is not immediate. There is a gap because, the person
stops to evaluate the different conditions. Thus the reason which
was thought to be very strong before the thought was given may
not remain the same. Some other motive may take its place.
If a perso n behaves in a particular way because of certain set
of conditions of which he has no knowledge, his actions take one
form. But, if he is aware or conscious of the condition which has
influenced him, he may react to them differently from there on Prof.
Hocking says, “Men can be managed.” When people become
aware of the fact that they are expected to react in a particular way
this itself may be a motive to act negatively.
Freedom partly means the power to deliberate upon before
acting and considering all t he different course of action than the
one suggested by the immediate stimuli that the person
experiences. Thus to conclude, man is not a play thing in the hands
of nature. Within the limits, he has the power to manipulate the
course of nature to suit his needs.munotes.in
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4.6 CONCLUSION:
To a philosopher ‘freedom’ refers to the capacity to choose.
“To what extent man is free?” is a hotly debated issue in the
philosophical circles. This problem is referred to as free will v/s
determinism. Three possible solutions o ffered.
A. The Denial of Freedom:
1. Determinism: Everything in the universe (including man) is
completely governed by causal laws.
2. Predestination: asserts that our destiny is determined by God
(divine will)
3. Fatalism: asserts that events in natur ea n di nm e n ’ sl i v e sa r e
fixed in the beginning of time.
B. Indeterminism:
This theory stresses that there are genuine possibilities in the
future. Everything is not causally connected. According to James
this world is ‘open’. There is space for novelty, chance and
spontaneity.
C. Self-determinism:
The theory proposes that the self is a causal agent and
therefore determinism and freedom may be combined. This view is
a“ G o l d e nm e a n ”b e t w e e nt h et w oe x t r e m e s -Determinism and
Freedom.
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